by Barbara Spadaro
To many developmental instructors, whose students present a tangle of knowledge gaps, performance deficits, and affective problems, the term “learning disability” (LD) may seem too vague to be useful, another ill-defined piece in an already complicated puzzle. However, if properly applied, the concept of “learning disability”—and, most importantly, strategies designed to compensate for specific deficits—can be used to help certain students gain equal footing in an increasingly competitive academic arena.
“The purpose of identifying a person with a learning disability is to offer that person strategies for overcoming his or her deficits,” notes Joan Monroe, a learning disabilities specialist in the Learning Lab at Community College of Philadelphia. “Learning disabilities can often be compensated for, if the student is motivated to work hard.”
The term “learning disability,” since it came into popularity in the 1970s, has been used to cover a range of learning challenges. The original broad definition of learning disability—cognitive differences or deficits that affect how people with average to superior intelligence process, retain or express information—has been continually modified and refined throughout three decades of multidisciplinary study. Current thinking holds that people with learning disabilities—which can range from difficulty in reading to problems with calculation—can vary in intelligence from borderline to genius.
A learning disability is a lifelong condition, says Joan Monroe. It can ultimately affect all facets of daily living, including work, social activities, and time management as well as education.
Learning disabilities are diagnosed by a comprehensive battery of IQ and basic skills tests. At Community College of Philadelphia, learning assessment coordinator Marlene Koestenblatt uses “an abbreviated psychoeducational evaluation that measures cognitive and achievement functioning and looks at deficits and discrepancies.” The tests give the specialist some idea of the student’s general aptitude in language and non-verbal reasoning, comparing this to his or her ability to perform on basic skills tests. A considerable difference between aptitude and performance, or between aptitudes, may indicate a learning disability. The student also fills out a multi-page questionnaire covering his or her educational and medical history. The information, which remains confidential until the student gives written permission for its release, is usually rounded out by samples of the student’s classroom work and instructor comments.
Some of the most compelling new research on cognitive differences or deficits is taking place in the area of neuropsychology, says Marlene Koestenblatt. Even apparently minor head injuries can have major consequences later, she says. “Head injuries, even those which are ‘minor,’ may result in short or long term cognitive ramifications. Also, systemic conditions, such as epilepsy, diabetes, or multiple sclerosis, can produce results that seem similar to learning disabilities.” Medical experts are already using techniques such as MRI in an attempt to visualize areas of brain activity involved in learning differences.
The idea that physical insults can affect learning may be particularly relevant to developmental teachers whose students come from backgrounds compromised by parental neglect, poor prenatal care, and substance abuse. In these instances, emotional problems may often correlate with learning disabilities, either because of conflict in the person’s background or within the person herself. “When you’re bright and you can’t express yourself, or you’re terribly disorganized—living your life that way can promote conflict and stress,” Koestenblatt says. “In addition, a neuropsychological condition, whether congenital or resulting from early injury, disease, or deprivation, may also cause difficulty with regulation of emotion.”
A person with a learning disability who is at-risk educationally may be helped to compensate for a specific learning deficit, says Koestenblatt. However, she warns that “a single accommodation—like using a calculator or taking a test outside the classroom—may not be sufficient for success.” For example, a student whose learning disability is accompanied by extreme impulsivity may not employ a step-by-step test-taking strategy. He or she may finish a test too quickly, without completing it or checking the answers. Many specialists concur that not all students with LD are “college material.” Learning disabilities associated with clear-cut academic tasks, such as reading, writing, or test-taking, are the easiest to address. When associated factors such as disinhibition intervene, academic success becomes much harder to achieve.
Both Joan Monroe and Marlene Koestenblatt believe that many learning disabilities go undetected into adulthood. So how can an educator of non-traditional students recognize the undiagnosed student with LD in the classroom setting, in hopes of directing that person towards the appropriate resources?
One way of identifying a learning disability is identifying what it is not. It is not the usual variation that most people show in aptitude—being “good” at math and “bad” at English does not necessarily constitute a learning disability. Nor is it the result of poor vision or hearing, emotional problems, economic disadvantages, and/or educational disadvantages, although learning difficulties may be compounded—and even obscured—by these.
Also, a learning disability is not just a lack of conceptual capability. “Students with LD are not simply slow learners,” says Joan Monroe. In IQ testing, the slow learner displays a flat cognitive profile, with little variation between and among aptitudes and abilities. Test results in areas such as listening, speaking, reasoning and basic academic skills will be similar. In contrast, the student with LD may exhibit a pattern of strengths and weaknesses, scoring perhaps in the 90th percentile in one area and in the 20th percentile in another. Says Marlene Koestenblatt, “The student with LD may possess the basic conceptual capability but the classroom teacher could observe some difficulties with specific academic skills, and also possibly great inconsistencies in handling academic tasks on a day-to-day basis.”
Most developmental educators would agree that inconsistency in student performance poses one of the greatest threats to academic success. However, what the classroom teacher observes as simple inconsistency could be caused by a welter of circumstances that even the student might be hard pressed to define. In addition, the developmental classroom often contains students with a variety of reading and writing levels, and students’ motivation varies as well—so how can an instructor tell the difference between a student who needs the support of a specialist and one who doesn’t?
“What you see, typically, is some discrepancy. Something about this student doesn’t add up,” says Marlene Koestenblatt. “Perhaps the student can clearly explain answers verbally but is unable to reproduce the answers on a test. Or perhaps you’ll see someone with a good oral command of language and good vocabulary, but terrible spelling. Sometimes when students read out loud they have difficulty decoding, or sounding out words, but they get the overall idea of what they’re reading.”
And sometimes the giveaway is more subtle. One example may be the student who can understand individual sentences but who may miss how transition words link sentences together and enhance their meaning, says Joan Monroe. Other hallmark problems may include recurring grammar problems on English papers, even though the student has demonstrated understanding of grammar concepts. In math, a student may understand the concepts underlying operations, but have to add on her fingers to get the right answer.
A learning disability may also be exhibited in a more general way. For example, says Koestenblatt, “a student may be unusually scattered or disorganized with material or ideas, or be continually misinterpreting assignments or deadlines.” Or a seemingly bright student may display an intractable pattern of what seem like “careless errors.” Sometimes long term assignments leave such students adrift in calm water, unable to get a handle on how to start, let alone complete, such a task.
These patterns in a student with LD usually don’t disappear just because the student works harder. “If you are dealing with a developmental student who can succeed on the college level without special support, you may see, for example, that if the student prepares for a test, he or she can complete it in an appropriate amount of time. But the student with LD—even if prepared—may consistently need more time as well as assistive devices such as spell checks or taped tests,” says Marlene Koestenblatt. “With a student with LD, you must frequently do both remedial and compensatory work.
“Certain deficits may never be corrected,” she continues. “Success in these areas depends on compensating. Unlike most students, the student with LD will not function well in school without this. They may always need accommodations so that testing does measure the level of competency.” She also notes that although students with LD may improve with time on task, they often backslide. “Just because they’ve understood something doesn’t mean they can retain it,” she asserts.
Time extension is one of the most well-known—and perhaps controversial—of the accommodations made for learning disabled students. However, there are other, less formal accommodations that can be made by the classroom teacher. “Minor changes in the classroom interaction can really help a student with LD,” says Joan Monroe. “The transmission of information from teacher to student is often greatly improved if it’s one-on-one. They often need two-way communication, with the information broken down into small steps, using models and examples to make the point.” She notes that sometimes comments on written papers such as “awk.,” or “unlc. ref.” don’t convey enough information to the learning disabled student; the instructor may have to take a moment to decipher the code and show that student how to fix the problem. Link to list of suggestions.
The factors that prevent at-risk students from surmounting the difficulties they encounter learning to function at a college level are complex and interwoven, often affecting performance both in and out of the classroom. Can an instructor’s sensitivity in detecting and responding to learning disabilities really help ensure academic success?
It’s one important factor, says Marlene Koestenblatt. “But chiefly, the student’s motivation is important for success, as well as use of resources and supports both in and out of school. Also, the ability to conceptualize well is key. The choice of academic program is critical as well. It must be realistic and in line with the student’s abilities—career guidance for these students is very important. In short, she says, “It takes a lot to offset a learning disability.”
Classroom Changes Help Some Students Cope with Learning
Instructors can use the following tips to enhance learning for their students with LD:
Encourage students to use technology: word processing, electronic spell-checkers, talking calculators, textbooks on tape, CD ROM, etc.
Allow students to use number fact tables or calculators if they have not mastered number facts.
Print rather than use cursive script when writing on the chalkboard and on students’ papers.
Model new strategies of techniques.
Ask the students to express their understanding of a new concept in either oral or written form.
Encourage study groups and the exchange of telephone numbers.
Ask students what types of accommodations they have used in the past that have been successful.
Encourage students to use a tape recorder for lectures or class discussions.
Help students find a reliable notetaker.
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