U.S. Department of Education Title VI Project, The Middle East and Cross- Regional Connections
Sufi Motifs in Persian and Arabic Poetry

Grace Flisser
gflisser@ccp.edu
Community College of Philadelphia

1. Module title: Sufi motifs in Persian and Arabic poetry

2. Course: Module written for Humanities 101, Cultural Traditions: The Ancient World Through the Renaissance

3. Target Audience: Students enrolled in Humanities 101 are often freshmen, some of whom are concurrently enrolled in the freshman composition course. They are new to Humanities studies and inexperienced in the interpretation of texts; therefore, teacher guidance through discussion and carefully constructed writing assignments are essential in engaging students in the subject matter.

4. Module Goals: The goals of the module echo the goals of the semester: students will gain a broad although necessarily shallow historical perspective so that they can recognize time periods in Islamic and Middle Eastern history and roughly contextualize them in terms of European history. The students will also gain a sense of the cultural sensibility, world-view and important themes and touchstones of Islamic and Middle Eastern poetic writing. Finally, they will gain facility in reading and interpreting poetry and attending closely to language.

5. Introduction to Materials/Background Knowledge Required
The unit would require a minimum of three weeks of instructional time. Since the Humanities 101 survey is constructed chronologically, the unit would follow a unit consisting of primary and secondary material concerning early Christianity.

The material in this unit consists of Pre-Islamic and Islamic Persian and Arabic poetry, including love poetry which in particular students find engaging. As students become drawn into the themes and content of the poetry, we will in some cases analyze their rhetoric, their audience, and the poets' purposes as some of the love poetry also doubles as spiritual or even as political wisdom or statement. Furthermore, sociological themes may be induced such as relations between the genders, the role of women, and perhaps traditions and conventions of inter-tribal relationships (among the Bedouin, in The Story of Laila and Majnun).

Terminology:
The qasida, a Bedouin poetic composition consisting of a meditation on lost love and recited at convocations of tribes for poetry competitions, traditionally consists of three parts. First, the nasib, whose theme is the remembrance of the beloved, and includes a reverie on the lover's loss and an awakening from reverie, describes from the lover's point of view the traces of the campsite from which his beloved departed, including an image of the beloved moving through various "stations" on a journey away from him. Next, a journey or quest undertaken by the lover, usually into the desert, is described; and finally the qasida ends with a boast, often including a wine song in which the lover is re-integrated into the community or tribe. These odes offer rich interpretive possibilities, including earthly, spiritual, sexual, and romantic themes. The ghazal, the poetic form into which the nasib eventually evolved, also offers insights into the values of Persian courtly love and into a highly idealized and ennobling model of human love.

With the evolution of Sufi theology some time after the advent of Islam, the love poetry became saturated with spiritual rhetoric, so that the two systems of meaning, earthly and spiritual love, became inextricable. The qasida and nasib provided a vehicle for the poetic exploration of crucial Sufi concepts as the subjective experiences and love themes became codified in Sufi thought as states of spiritual consciousness in a Muslim's relationship to the divine considered central for the Islamic mystical experience which is Sufism. These same concepts provide a template through which to interpret love poetry; the rhetoric in such mystical poetry is ambiguous enough to be interpreted as either spiritual or earthly love. And in fact, some interpret the pre-Islamic qasida through applying Sufi-inspired interpretive rubrics. Sufi concepts useful for interpreting the qasida, nasib, ghazal, and Sufi poetry are provided in a glossary at the end of this document.

The ghazal is identified with aristocratic, or courtly love and is usually identified as having evolved within the Persian cultural sphere, and it may be understood to convey theological themes through the exploration of earthly love. A more pedagogical purpose is often attached to it, however; in some cases it becomes almost a kind of wisdom literature although it is not deemed sacred. The reader internalizes and seeks to emulate the ennobled behavior and nature of the self-sacrificing, dedicated male lover who is capable of withstanding suffering and pain due to his Beloved's ultimate unattainability.

6. Readings and commentary
A. The Mu'allaqa, by Labid
Labid, a pre-Islamic Bedouin poet writing perhaps in the 600's, writes an ode or qasida reflecting the form's traditional structure. Although the themes address traditions in tribal culture, Bedouin poetry, and courtly love, these traditions may also still be embedded in later Islamic poetry or Udhrite literature. For example, such themes as recounting the attributes of the Beloved, enumerating and imagining the stations of the journey of the Beloved and imagining the re-union with the Beloved as if she were the Divine are all themes that appear within later Islamic or Udhrite literature.
The Mu'allaqa may be found in Michael Sells' Desert Trace: Six Classic Arabian Odes by 'Alqama, Shanfara, Labid, 'Antara, Al-A'sha, and huh al-Rumma.

B. The Story of Layla and Majnun
Written by the Udhrite poet, Qays in c. 668 and retold by Nizami, a Persian poet from around 1188, The Story of Layla and Majnun is a narrative love poem with theological and mystical resonance written in the Masnavi, the form for spiritual poetry written in couplets. It tells of the mutual love of Majnun (whose name means "possessed") and Layla despite the fact that they were from warring Bedouin tribes and could not therefore marry and were in fact forced to be apart, a situation that eventually killed them, and killed the man who eventually became Layla's husband. Students would be required to read several chapters from the book.
. Excerpts (chosen by Michael Sells) follow:

1. In this way Majnun of rhe Bani Amir would say, when looking at a wild animal, "Layla," when looking at the mountains, "Layla," and when looking at other people, "Layla," to the point that when he was asked his name and condition, he said, "Layla!"

2. [Later, Majnun says,]

I search the secret of my heart for desire for you but find only myself that I am you and the inner essence greater. If she finds that I am found raptured in her she speaks of herself when she speaks of me.

For Majnun, and in theological Sufi terms, Layla has become conflated with the Divine,
due to their separation; therefore, Majnun has become mystically possessed by her, in earthly terms. He has lost his individual ego, annihilated his own identity, and in an ecstasy of love, experiences only the divine presence. She becomes the love principle underlying the existence of Majnun, the lover, or of the devoted Sufi. Majnun's grief, as he wastes away into a gaunt shadow living in the desert, brings him to new levels of consciousness and ego-lessness.

Study questions and assignments based on a section of the narrative appear in the next section.

C. Ibn'Arabi's poems, c. 1160

Ibn' Arabi wrote in the form of the ghazal and was also aware of Sufi motifs and theology and likely of the Udhrite love tradition, in which candles and fire appear as symbols of passion as they do in the Persian ghazal. In Ibn' Arabi's poem,"In Memory of Those Who Melt the Soul Forever," however, although the narrator is "burned alive," he is not extinguished as is Majnun; the Beloved is perhaps not altogether and forever unattainable although she idealized.

Study questions and assignments appear in the next section.

D. Jalal Al-Din Rumi
Rumi, who lived in the 12200's and migrated when relatively young with his family from Persia to western Turkey, became a beloved sage and, for some, a saintly teacher, who enabled the mystical Sufi tradition to evolve and become more widely dispersed through his teaching, writing, and charismatic presence. Probably the best-known Sufi writer in the United States today, Rumi's poems are tied inextricably to Islamic theology and Sufi practices and should be understood as reflecting a mystical world-view. His poems draw on or reference the Sufi themes and experiences referred to above; some employ love themes while others reflect more philosophical issues. The Beloved is sometimes named as Shams al-Tabriz, who was an older Sufi sage with whom Rumi formed an extremely close and loving bond.
One of Rumi's great works is the Masnavi ,(also translated as Spiritual Couplets) which is also the name of the narrative genre in which Layla and Majnun was written. As an adjective, "masnavi" means spiritual or "relating to inner meaning" (Lewis). These poems are often allegories of the soul and eamine the relationship to the divine within an Islamic context which nonetheless acknowledges the truths within a diversity of spiritual frameworks. He stresses "tawhid," a Sufi concept of the divine unity that underlies the
multiplicity of realities and phenomena.

. Notes related to several of these poems follow below.
a. To Take a Step Without Feet": Rumi refers to both earthly love and divine love in his first line; the first stanza describes the "stations" through which the soul must journey in order to acquire the wisdom that will enable the soul to see past illusion. In order to attain such a goal, the seeker must "let go of life," or withdraw from the circle of society, since human endeavor is limited and finite. Through introspection and inner search, one has a dialogue with various aspects of one's own existence: the heart, the soul (conceived of as a bird). The heart - perhaps identified with the ego - has become entangled with earthly living, the "house of water and clay," perhaps the body; it cannot escape. In order to transcend the earthly, bodily existence, one must step without the physical feet, divesting the self of all earthly manifestations, including the ego; only then will one fine divine love.
b. "Love is Like a Lawsuit":
The harsh treatment that one undergoes when involved in a lawsuit is likened to the pain of experiencing divine love, from the Sufi perspective. The "evidence" demanded by the "judge" may be likened to providing an accounting for one's soul; such treatment is deemed necessary for the "seeker" who wishes to become "polished," or cleansed.
c."Boil Nicely Now":
As in the poem above, the chickpea of the soul complains of the boiling it must undergo in the pot of the Housewife. She reassures the chickpea/soul that its boiling will enable it to "gain flavor,/and become nutritious and mingle with essential spirits." In other words, the soul must undergo this trial for its own sake and is urged to cooperate since its soul will benefit, become enriched, and perhaps increase in goodness so that it may draw closer to the divine. The boiling, then, is a purification.

The above poems are taken from The Rumi Collection, edited by Kabir Helminski, and which appears in the bibliography at the end of this document. Another poem, however, "Poem 1," is taken from Franklin Lewis' book on Rumi, which also appears at the end of this document.

Discussion questions appear in the next section for these and for additional poems.

7. Discussion questions and Writing Assignments

Study Guide Questions for Labid's The Mu'Allaqah

1.What concrete images and details does the narrator encounter at the deserted campsite? What mood is suggested by the first page and a half of the qasida?
2.The narrator then says, "But why recall Nawar?" He seems to want to stop thinking of her, but he is not ready to yet. In what way does he continue to think of her in the next few stanzas?
3. A bit later, as the nasib ends and the "journey" begins, the narrator indeed stops dwelling on Nawar. Examine the concrete details he lists. How has the mood changed?
What occurs in the course of this journey? Has the narrator completely freed himself from Nawar?
4. Describe the boast. How do you react to it?
5. Later, the narrator boasts of his own generosity, and changes from talking of "I" to talking of the tribe, "we." What concrete acts is he referring to?
6. Finally, the narrator makes references to god. What attributes, principles, and roles doe he ascribe to god?
7. Many would say that the poem ends on a note in which the patriarchal order has been restored. Do you feel that this is a gain or loss for the narrator? How has he changed from the beginning to the end of the poem?

Study Guide Questions for The Story of Layla and Majnun (based on appended excerpt):

1. How does the narrator understand and describe Majnun's situation relative to his people? What meaning does his life have, socially?
2. Describe Majnun's actions and state of mind.. How does he address god? How does he address those around him? How does he address Layla?
3. Despite Majnun's anguish, towards the end of the first section , the narrator/author celebrates Majnun's love. Examine Nizami's words and reflect on them.
4. Reflect on Majnun's actions at the Ka'aba as well as on Nizami's words of praise for Majnun, referenced in question #3. What do you make of Majnun's love-state?
5. Majnun's love has social consequences that effect both Layla and Majnun as well as their tribes. Explain the social context and the popular understanding of this love, as articulated by the caliph.
6. Majnun's father gives him advice when he finds Majnun in a dejected and degraded state. This advice is what we'd call "common sense." What are the values espoused by the Sayyid? How does Majnun understand his own state, in contrast to the way his father sees it?
7. Consider a Sufi reading of this fable; Layla would be understood to signify the Divine Beloved, or god. . What state of consciousness might Majnun be understood to be experiencing?
8. Would you read this poem as a love story, a mystical theological tract, or both? Consider the reasons for your answer.

Study guide for Ibn' Arabi

1. Who might be the "they" referred to in the first stanza? Exactly whose "are the tears" referred to in the second stanza?
2. Describe the love-state in which the speaker finds himself.
3. Is the speaker/love in this poem lost or doomed or not? Explain how you come to that conclusion.
4. On its face, this is a love poem. However, some of the terms are very Sufi-like and suggest a mystical passion for god. Consider such language as "love-dazed" [see glossary], "melt the soul," "burned alive," "incandescent," and "the fever of love," some of which remind us of Majnun, and some of which don't. Consider this poem in light of the mystical, spiritual, and earthly love between Layla and Majnun or in light of The Mu'allaqah.

Study guide for Rumi

"Love is Like a Lawsuit"
1. Examine the metaphors. Who is the "Judge" in the poem, and what is the "evidence" presented to him?
2. What exactly is the "lawsuit" that the "seeker of purity" must manage?
3. Is "Love" harsh? What sort of love polishes one?
4. Explain the metaphor of the rug and the rug-beater.

"Boil Nicely Now"
1. Whom do the chickpea and housewife symbolize?
2. Is the housewife cruel, humorous, kind, merciful? Explain.
3. Metaphorically, what will the"boiling" accomplish?
4. Explain the last image: before it was picked, the chickpea was watered; the purpose of the watering was so that it would be cooked later.

"To Take a Step Without Feet:
1. From other poems, we've seen that "love" does not necessarily have the romantic connotations or meaning that we ordinarily associate with it. What might it mean in this line?
2. The speaker in the poem talks to his own heart, his own soul, and the heart answers him. What does it mean to talk to one's own "parts" in this way?
3. Explain the heart's answer. Can the heart undertake what the speaker would like?
4. What "step" would the speaker like to take? How can s/he do it?

"This Universe is for Satisfying Needs"
1. What was the cause of Jesus speaking from the cradle, according to the narrator?
2. The poem turns the concepts of "supply and demand" on their head, in a sense. He stresses that one should increase ones' "demand" or need rather than increase the supply. Use the example of the mother's milk and the baby to illustrate your explanation.
3. Explain this concept theologically. What is the role of god in this understanding of the universe?

"Poem 1"
1. This poem is an extended metaphor in which the inner workings of consciousness (or the soul) are examined in their relationships to each other.
a. How does the flesh connect to the heart?
b. How do our thoughts enable the process to continue?
c. Who is the miller?
2. What is the role of god in relationship to the miller and mill?
3. The poem is theological in its meaning. Does it make sense to you introspectively?

Writing assignments

It should be clear that numerous possibilities exist for assigning explications of poems, journal responses to poems and stories, and so on. Following are several essay assignments:

1. Consider the consequences in terms of individual happiness effected by the roles ascribed to gender, based on our reading of The Story of Layla and Majnun and The Mu'Allaqah. (For example: are women free to choose their romantic partner or husband? Do men play the role of their protectors or their jailers, or both or some other role? Do both men and women suffer? Does either benefit? Who has the power in romantic relationships? ) Use the literature closely in order to enable the reader better to understand it.

2. In both Nizami's and Labid's work, the absence of the Beloved is a crucial theme. Perhaps it is the absence of the Beloved that fuels the character's love. In these situations, which male character seems more realistic? Which seems more admirable, generous, noble, courageous? How does their relationship to their love shape or help them display their qualities?

4. Choose several of Rumi's poems to analyze in order to discuss the poet's theology of the soul and its relationship to god or "love."

5. Choose several of Rumi's poems to analyze in order to examine the poet's idea of salvation or the ultimate goal of the soul.

8. Classroom Activities

Classroom activities will include small-group de-briefing concerning study questions and close examination of poems. These will be followed by class discussion. There will be lecture that provides a time-line and brief historical context as well as notes provided that provide literary terminology and that explain various literary devices. Brief excerpts from the PBS video on "Islam" will be shown as well.

9. Bibliography for Instructors

Lewis, Franklin D. Rumi Past and Present, East and West: The Life, Teachings, and
Poetry of Jalal Al-Din Rumi. Oxford: Oneworld Publications, 2001.

Nasr, Seyyed Hossein. Sufi Essays, 3rd ed. Chicago: ABC International Group, 1999.

Nizami. The Story of Layla and Majnun. Trans. Dr. Rudolf Gelpke. New Lebanon:
Omega Publications, 1997.

Meisani, Julie Scott. Medieval Persian Court Poetry. Princeton University Press, 1987.

Sells, Michael. Desert Tracings: Six Classic Arabian Odes by 'Alqama, Shanfara,
Labid, 'Antara, 'Al-A'sha, and Dhu al-Rumma. Trans. Michael Sells. Middletown:
Wesleyan University Press, 1989.

Sell, Michael. "Guises of the Ghul: Dissembling Simile and Semantic Overflow in the
Classical Arabic Nasib." Reorientations: Arabic and Persian Poetry. Ed. Suzanne
Pinckney Stetkevych. Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 1994.

Sells, Michael. Stations of Desire: Love Elegies from Ibn' Arabi and New Poems.
Jerusalem: Ibis Editions, 2000.

Seyed-Gohrab, Ali Sighar. "The Ideal Beloved." Lalyla and Majnun: Love, Madness,
And Mystic Longing in Nizami's Epic Romance. Boston: Brill, 2003.

Student Resource:

Helminski, Kabir, ed. The Rumi Collection. Boston: Shambhala Publications, 1998.

10. Glossary of Sufi concepts and Arabic and Islamic poetic terms

Atlal: in the qasida: the traces and ruins of the beloved's campsite

Fanah: in Sufism: ecstatic annihilation of the self; the individual merges with the divine Beloved

Ghazal: a Persian poetic form, likely evolved from the qasida, often treating the subject of love

Hayra: in Sufism: mystical bewilderment; experiencing possession by the divine; sense of identity, reason, and will become undifferentiated

Ibn'Arabi: Sufi poet from Andalus, b. 1165; wrote mystical love poetry and the nasib

Jaalal Al-Din Rumi : better known in west as Rumi: Persian Sufi teacher and poet, 1207-1273 C.E.

Ka'aba: sacred shrine at Mecca

Labid: Bedouin author of the qasida, Mu'Allaqah, c. 600's

Maqam(at): 1. in poetry, the station/s through which the beloved moves away from her lover after her departure; 2. in Sufism, the stations through which the soul of the seeker passes in search of the divine

Masnavi: a Persian poetic genre for spiritual literature; also title of a central work by Rumi, sometimes translated as Spiritual Couplets

Nasib: the first structural component in the qasida; the remembrance of the departed beloved in the traces of her ruined campsite

Nizami: Persian poet who shaped the many traditional versions of Layla and Majnun into a written version, adding his own stamp, c. 1188

Qasida: pre-Islamic Arabic poetic form whose theme is a meditation on lost love; recited orally in earlier stages of its evolution

Quys: Persian poet who immortalized himself in his own poem, The Story of Majnun and Layla, c. 288, wherein the poet becomes possessed by love

Sama: in Sufism, devotional practice of physically turning in circles for mystical experience

Sirr: in Sufism, the basic truth known only deep within, the heart-secret in mystical love poetry: associated with atlal, which provides traces of the absent Beloved, the secret

The Story of Layla and Majnun: a narrative poem in the ePersian Udhrite tradition depicting courtly, earthly, and mystical love

Sufi: a Muslim theological tradition, seeking a mystical internal experience of the divine

Udhrite: 7th. C. Bedouin love poetry in which courtly, pedagogical, and mystical love themes intertwine; the beloved is physically unattainable

Wajd: in Sufism, ecstasy, the mystical experience of the loss of the ego

Waqt: in Sufism, the moment during which one lacks will; associated with surrender, and takes place in real time