Fall, 2009 Required Materials

Course Outline

Online Resources

Histology Slides

Required Textbook: Fundamentals of Anatomy and Physiology, 8th edition, by F.H. Martini.  Pearson-Benjamin/Cummings, San Francisco, CA.

 

Required Lab Manual: Laboratory Manual for Anatomy and Physiology, by M.G. Wood.   Pearson-Benjamin/Cummings, San Francisco, CA.

 

Required Equipment for the laboratory: Students must purchase Safety Goggles and Gloves for the laboratory

 

This outline follows the recommendations of the Human Anatomy and Physiology Society) The information in this outline is not designed to limit class discussion; rather, it is designed to detail the minimum requirements for this course. This outline will serve as the blueprint for the comprehensive final examination.

 

I. Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

      A. Scope and subdivisions of anatomy and physiology

      B. Levels of structural organization

           1. chemical level

             2. cellular level: organelle

             3. tissue level: 4 basic body tissues

             4. organ level

             5. organ system level: 11 systems

             6. organism level

      C. Characteristics of life: life processes

      D. Concept of homeostasis

             1. definition and examples

             2. environments

                    a) extracellular fluid (ECF)

                    b) intracellular fluid (ICF)

             3. regulation: neural and endocrine

             4. feedback mechanisms

                    a) negative

                    b) positive

             5. effects of stress

      E. General anatomical terminology

             1. anatomical position

             2. directional terms

             3. planes and sections

             4. body cavities and membranes

 

II. Cell Biology

      A. Basic cellular components

             1. cell membrane

             2. cytoplasm and cytoplasmic organelles

                    a) ribosomes

                    b) endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus

                    c) lysosomes and peroxisomes

                    d) mitochondria and cell respiration

                    e) cytoskeleton

                           1) microfilaments

                           2) microtubules

                           3) intermediate filaments

                    f) cilia and flagella

                    g) centrosome and centrioles

             3. nucleus

                    a) nuclear envelop

                    b) nucleoplasm

                    c) nucleolus

      B. Cell chemistry

             1. review of basic chemistry

                    a) atomic structure

                    b) chemical bonding

                    c) chemical reactions

             2. inorganic components

                    a) water

                    b) acids, bases, and salts

                    c) pH and buffers

             3. organic components

                    a) carbohydrates

                           1) monosaccharides

                           2) disaccharides

                           3) polysaccharides

                    b) lipids

                           1) fats and phospholipids

                           2) steroids

                    c) proteins

                           1) amino acid structure

                           2) enzyme functions

                    d) nucleic acids: DNA, RNA, and ATP

      C. Cell membrane

             1. fluid mosaic model of membrane structure

             2. selective permeability: movement across a membrane

                    a) passive processes

                           1) diffusion

                           2) osmosis

                           3) filtration

                          4) facilitated diffusion

                    b) active processes

                           1) active transport: ion exchange pumps

                           2) bulk transport: endocytosis & exocytosis

                    c) osmolarity and tonicity

             4. electrochemical gradients: resting membrane potential

      D. Nucleus

             1. protein synthesis

                    a) DNA transcription

                    b) translation

             2. cell division

                     a) cell cycle: interphase

                    b) somatic cell division: mitosis and cytokinesis

                    c) gamete formation: meiosis

 

III. Cellular Organization: Tissue

      A. Cell junctions

      B. Tissue types: components and general functions

             1. epithelial tissues: membranous and glandular

             2. connective tissues: embryonic and mature

             3. muscle tissues

             4. nervous tissue

      C. Membranes

             1. mucous

             2. serous

             3. synovial

 

IV. Integumentary System

      A. Skin

              1. general functions

             2. layers: epidermis and dermis

      B. Epidermal derivatives (accessory structures)

             1. glands: sweat and sebaceous

             2. hair and nails

 

V. Nervous Tissue

      A. Organization of the nervous system

             1. central nervous system: brain and spinal cord

             2. peripheral nervous system: nerves and ganglia

                    a) afferent (sensory)

                           1) general somatic

                           2) visceral

                    b) efferent (motor)

                           1) general somatic

                           2) visceral: sympathetic and parasympathetic

      B. Nervous tissue

             1. neurons: parts and classifications

             2. neuroglial cells (CNS & PNS) and myelin formation

      C. Neurophysiology: membrane physiology

             1. polarized membrane: resting membrane potential

             2. ion channels

                    a) leakage (non-gated)

                    b) gated: chemical, voltage, mechanical, light

             3. action potential (nerve impulse)

                    a) depolarization and repolarization events

                    b) All or None Law

                    c) refractory period: absolute and relative

                    d) conduction: continuous and saltatory

             4. synaptic transmission

                    a) electrical synapses

                    b) chemical synapses

                           1) cholinergic

                           2) adrenergic

                    c) types of synapses

                           1) axodendritic

                           2) neuromuscular

                           3) neuroglandular

             5. postsynaptic potentials (PSP)

                    a) excitatory postsynaptic potentials (EPSP)

                           1) temporal

                           2) spatial

                    b) inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (IPSP)

             6. neuronal circuits

      D. Nerve tissue injury: Wallerian degeneration and regeneration

 

VI. Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves

      A. Spinal cord

             1. spinal meninges

                    a) dura mater

                    b) arachnoid

                    c) pia mater

             2. external anatomy of spinal cord

                    a) posterior median sulcus

                    b) anterior median fissure

                    c) cervical and lumbar enlargements

                    d) conus medullaris, cauda equina, filum terminale

                    e) spinal nerves

                           1) dorsal root and dorsal root ganglion

                           2) ventral root

             3. internal anatomy of the spinal cord

                    a) gray matter: horns

                    b) white matter: columns and tracts

             4. physiology of the spinal cord

                    a) sensory and motor tracts

                    b) reflex arc

                           1) receptor: exteroceptors and interoceptors

                           2) sensory neuron

                           3) integration

                           4) motor neuron

                           5) effector: muscle or gland

                    c) specific reflexes

                           1) monosynaptic: stretch reflex

                           2) polysynaptic: tendon, withdraw, and crossed extensor reflex

      B. Spinal nerves

             1. nerve structure: composition, coverings, distribution

             2. peripheral distribution: rami

             3. nerve plexuses

                    a) cervical

                    b) brachial

                    c) lumbar

                    d) sacral

 

VII. Brain and Cranial Nerves

       A. Organization of the brain

             1. brain development

                     a) primary brain vesicles

                           1) prosencephalon

                           2) mesencephalon

                           3) rhombencephalon

                    b) secondary brain vesicles

                           1) telencephalon

                           2) diencephalon

                           3) mesencephalon

                           4) metencephalon

                           5) mylencephalon

             2. cranial meninges

                    a) dura mater

                    b) arachnoid

                    c) pia mater

             3. cerebrospinal fluid (formation and circulation)

             4. brain ventricles

                    a) lateral ventricles

                    b) third ventricle

                   c) cerebral aqueduct

                    d) fourth ventricle

      B. Brain stem

             1. medulla oblongata

             2. pons

             3. reticular formation

             4. midbrain

      C. Diencephalon

             1. thalamus

             2. hypothalamus

      D. Cerebrum

             1. external features: gyri, sulci, fissures, and lobes

             2. white matter: tracts

             3. cerebral nuclei (basal ganglia)

             4. limbic system

             5. functional areas: sensory, motor, and association

      E. Cerebellum

      F. Cranial nerves: origins, destinations, basic functions

 

VIII. Sensory, Motor, and Integrative Systems

      A. Sensation

             1. levels of sensation, modality, components, receptors

             2. general senses: cutaneous and proprioceptive

             3. sensory pathways: ascending tracts

                    a) posterior column pathway

                    b) anterolateral spinothalamic pathway

                    c) spinocerebellar pathway

      B. Motor pathways: descending tracts

             1. direct (pyramidal) pathways

             2. indirect (extrapyramidal) pathways

      C. Integrative functions

             1. consciousness, wakefulness, and sleep

             2. learning, memory, and thinking

             3. speech: vocal, reading, writing

 

IX. Special Senses

      A. General receptors

             1. nociceptors

             2. thermoreceptors

             3. mechanoreceptors

             4. chemoreceptors

             5. photoreceptors

      B. Olfactory sensation

       C. Gustatory sensation

      D. Visual sensation

             1. accessory structures of the eye

             2. structure of the eyeball

                    a) fibrous tunic

                    b) vascular tunic

                    c) nervous tunic

             3. image formation and accommodation

             4. photoreception: photopigments

      E. Auditory sensation and equilibrium

             1. ear structure

                    a) external ear

                    b) middle ear: ossicles

                    c) internal ear: vestibule and cochlea

             2. hearing: sound waves

             3. equilibrium

 

X. Autonomic Nervous System

      A. Comparison: somatic and autonomic systems

      B. Autonomic motor pathway

             1. components

                    a) preganglionic neurons

                    b) autonomic ganglia

                    c) postganglionic neurons

             2. sympathetic (thoracolumbar) division

             3. parasympathetic (craniosacral) division

      C. ANS stimulation

             1. receptors

                    a) cholinergic (nicotinic and muscarinic)

                    b) adrenergic (alpha and beta)

             2. effects of stimulation on the body

 

XI. Endocrine System

      A. Comparison: nervous and endocrine systems

      B. Hormones

             1. hormone chemistry

             2. hormone transport

             3. receptors (first and second messengers)

       C. Pituitary (hypophysis) gland

             1. hypothalamus

                    a) releasing hormones

                    b) inhibiting hormones

              2. anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis)

                    a) somatotrophs: somatotropin (GH)

                    b) lactotrophs: prolactin

                    c) corticotrophs: adrenocorticotropin (ACTH)

                    d) thyrotrophs: thyrotropin (TSH)

                    e) gonadotrophs

                           1) follicle stimulating (FSH)

                           2) luteinizing hormones (LH)

                           3) interstitial cell-stimulating hormone

                    f) melanocyte-stimulating hormone (MSH)

             3. posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis): pituicytes

                   a) antidiuretic hormone (ADH)

                    b) oxytocin

      D. Other endocrine glands

             1. thyroid gland

                    a) follicle cells: T3 and T4 (thyroxin)

                    b) parafollicular cells: calcitonin

             2. parathyroid gland: parathyroid hormone (PTH)

             3. pancreas: pancreatic islets

                    a) alpha cells: glucagon

                    b) beta cells: insulin

             4. adrenal gland

                    a) cortex

                           1) mineralocorticoids

                           2) glucocorticoids

                           3) gonadocorticoids

                    b) medulla: epinephrine and norepinephrine

             5. gonads

                    a) ovaries: estrogens and progesterone

                    b) testes: testosterone

             6. pineal gland: pinealocytes--melatonin

            7. thymus gland: thymosin

      E. Other endocrine tissues

             1. GI tract: gastrin, secretin, cholecystokinin, and gastric inhibitory peptide

             2. placenta: human chorionic gonadotropin and relaxin

             3. kidneys: erythropoietin

             4. cardiac muscle fibers: atrial natriuretic peptide

      F. General adaptation syndrome

             1. stressors

             2. alarm reaction

             3. resistance reaction

             4. exhaustion

 

 

XII. Skeletal System and Articulations

      A. Functions of bone

             1. mechanical: support, protection, movement

             2. physiological: hemopoiesis and mineral storage

      B. Bone structure

             1. parts of the typical long bone

             2. bone tissue: osteoblasts, osteocytes, osteoclasts

             3. compact bone: Haversian system (osteon)

             4. spongy bone: trabeculae

      C. Development and growth

             1. intramembranous ossification

             2. endochondral ossification

             3. epiphyseal plate: zones of bone formation

             4. growth in diameter

      D. Bone homeostasis: nutritional and hormonal influences

             1. remodeling of bone

              2. calcium homeostasis

      E. Divisions

             1. axial skeleton

             2. appendicular skeleton

      F. Articulations

             1. synarthrosis

                    a) fibrous (suture and gomphosis)

                    b) cartilaginous (synchondrosis)

             2. amphiarthrosis

                    a) fibrous (syndesmosis)

                    b) cartilaginous (symphysis)

            3. diarthrosis: synovial

                     a) synovial cavity, membrane, fluid

                    b) ligaments: extracapsular and intracapsular

                    c) movements

                           1) monoaxial

                           2) biaxial

                           3) triaxial

 

XIII. Muscular System

      A. Muscle tissues: characteristics and functions

      B. Skeletal muscle

             1. hierarchy of muscle structure

              a) muscle attachments

                     1) origin

                     2) insertion

                     3) aponeurosis

                     4) tendon

              b) connective tissue components

                     1) epimysium

                     2) perimysium

                     3) endomysium

              c) motor unit and the neuromuscular junction

              d) myofiber

                     1) sarcolemma

                     2) sarcoplasmic reticulum

                     3) transverse tubules

              e) myofibrils: sarcomere structure

             2. muscle contraction: sliding filament mechanism

                    a) calcium and regulatory proteins

                    b) role of ATP

                    c) muscle relaxation

                    d) muscle tone

             3. metabolism

                    a) phosphagen system

                    b) glycogen-lactic acid system

                     c) aerobic system

             4. myofiber responses: muscle tension

                    a) single response: twitch

                           1) latent period

                           2) contraction period

                           3) relaxation periods

                    b) multiple responses

                           1) treppe

                           2) incomplete tetanus

                           3) complete tetanus

                    c) contraction

                           1) isotonic

                           2) isometric

             5. types of muscle fibers

                    a) slow oxidative

                    b) fast oxidative

                    c) fast glycolytic

             6. basic skeletal muscles

      C. Cardiac and smooth muscle

             1. microscopic anatomy

             2. cardiac muscle contraction

                    a) excitation-contraction coupling

                    b) length-tension relationship: Frank-Starling's law

                    c) neuroendocrine regulation

             3. smooth muscle

 

The JayDoc Histoweb - great histology resources

 

The Brain from Top to Bottom - a multi-layered approach

 

A Typical Animal Cell - good basic review of organelles